Did you pass the proficiency?

Congratulations:) We wish you every success in your faculties.

If you couldn't pass, don't worry. There are two more exams in July and September, waiting for you, but please study very well.

End of Term Survey

Dear Visitors,

We have come to the end of this term. Hoping that you have benefited from this website, we kindly ask you to fill in the End of Term Survey, please click View Survey on the right hand side. If you can't see it properly, you can also find it in the following link. We wish all the best for you, and we hope you pass the exam.

Thanks.

The link for the survey: http://www.polldaddy.com/s/3BB87E3A93211DA8/

A Note for C16

Hi Folks,

Here are some requests for our last meeting:

1. I kindly ask you to give me a set of photocopy of your second drafts. If you don’t have the second draft of a work, first draft is also acceptable.
2. I beg you to come on Thursday; please do come.
3. If you have not written Work 12 yet, please choose one of the subjects below and write it for Thursday as the last work of the portfolio.
a. The effects of smile
b. The causes of test anxiety
c. The effects of test anxiety

Thanks

Discussion Subject of the Week 20th - 23th of May

Causes OR Effects of Test Anxiety

Information about Test Anxiety
From: http://istudy.psu.edu/FirstYearModules/TestTaking/TestInformation.html

What causes test anxiety?
Anxiety is created by expectations or thoughts about what is likely to happen. If you say negative things to yourself about your abilities, it produces a corresponding negative emotional reaction: anxiety. If you believe you are not smart, don't know the information well enough, or aren't capable of performing well on exams, then your expectations will be for failure. Negative expectations then create anxiety, and the anxiety will disable you from actually doing well.
Therefore, if you believe in yourself and your abilities, and have positive expectations for how you will perform on the exam, you will be better able to cope with the anxiety. (A small amount of anxiety can be helpful for performing well.)

Students may blame test anxiety for poor performance on exams. This poor performance may actually be a lack of preparedness for a test (which causes anxiety), rather than classic test anxiety. Be sure to be well prepared. If your anxiety is a direct result of lack of preparation, consider anxiety a normal, rational reaction. Lack of preparation is indicated by the following:
- cramming the night before the exam
- poor time management
- failure to organize course information
- poor study habits
- worrying about past performance on exams and how friends and other students are doing in comparison to you

However, if you are adequately prepared but still panic, "blank out," and/or overreact, your reaction is not rational. In either case, it is helpful to know how to overcome the effects of test anxiety.

What can you do about test anxiety?
Brian:
Man, I've got a test next week and I'm scared!
Jose:
Why are you scared? Haven't you studied for it?
Brian:
Of course I've studied, especially during the last few days. The test is in English, the course I failed last semester. Last night I couldn't even sleep.
Deena:
Geez, Brian. Sounds like you've got a bad case of text anxiety.
Sage:
It sounds like you're scared because you failed the course last semester and so you think you're going to fail it again this semester.
Brian:
Yeah, I guess that's it . . .
Lori:
You know what they say: if you think it's so, it's so.
Deena:
Lighten up Lori.
Lori:
Sorry Brian. You know, a lot of students suffer from text anxiety at some point. I know some things you can do that might help. Would you like to work on them?
Deena:
I'll be glad to share some of the techniques I've learned.
Brian:
That'd be great!
Jose:
I could use some of those techniques myself.
Sage:
Me too!
Deena:
Ok, let's get started. When I get anxious about a test, I try to figure out why I'm worried. For me, feeling like I'm prepared is the key. If I don't feel prepared, then I get worried.
Lori:
Me too, Deena. And it's perfectly normal to feel anxious if you know you aren't prepared.
Brian:
But I've been studying, and I'm still worried.
Lori:
Ok. Let's see HOW you've been studying. Sometimes that can make a difference.
Brian:
OK.
Deena:
So, tell me about how and when you studied for this exam.
Brian:
Well, I started making study notes a couple of weeks ago. Once I finished compiling them, I started studying . . . probably last week.
Lori:
So . . . you really started studying for your final about 3 weeks before??
Brian:
Yeah, I guess so. But I did take notes in class and read before class.
Deena:
Lack of preparation is one of the main causes of text anxiety.
Jose:
He said he studied, so why would you say he wasn't prepared?
Lori:
I got this one Deena. It's not enough to study, you need to develop good study habits.
Brian:
I see. So you're saying I need a study strategy.
Deena:
Exactly!
Lori:
And, you need to make sure you are managing and organizing your time!
Jose:
And make sure you stick to whatever schedule you create.
Brian:
Ok, I'm understanding this now. So my study strategy should include scheduling time for studying. What else should I do to avoid feeling anxious at test time?
Lori:
Well, you've got to take care of yourself too. Sometimes I get so busy, I forget to eat. It's important to eat right, get enough sleep, and take a break for yourself!
Deena:
When I get anxious, I practice some relaxation techniques.
Brian:
Really? Like what?
Deena:
Well, like breathing slowly and deeply for a few minutes. This helps me calm down and clear my head.
Lori:
That sounds like a good one, Deena. I'll try that one day. One technique I use is to keep "negative" thoughts about the test out of my head. I tell myself I'm going to pass the test and if I don't pass this one, I'll do better next time. Sounds silly I know, but it works for me.
Jose:
I like that one Lori.

You can control test anxiety so that your performance on a test reflects your real standing in that course. Start by trying the techniques described in this module. However, if levels of test anxiety that interfere with your academic success persist, talk to a counselor for some specialized help.
There are three main areas students can work on to reduce test anxiety when it begins to interfere with test performance:
Preparation
Self care
Relaxation
Preparation
Mental preparation is of primary concern in dealing with test anxiety. Be well prepared for the test.
At the beginning of the semester:
Plan your study strategy so that you will know the material well enough at exam time that you can recall it even when you are under stress.
Organize your time (see the module on Time Management) and stick closely to your schedule. When you are to study, study. Learn and practice good time management and avoid:
laziness
procrastination
daydreaming
Form a study group where you can review notes, reading assignments, and homework with a few classmates (see the module on Cooperative Learning for tips on forming a study group ).

Activity 3:
Check to see if you remember what you just read by taking this short quiz (ANGEL Quiz).
Read these tip sheets on how to prepare for the various phases of taking an exam:
During the semester, pay attention to your attitude
Several days before the exam

Activity 4:
Time for a quick review. Complete this short quiz (ANGEL Quiz).
The night before the exam
The day of the exam
When you arrive at the location of the exam and begin the exam
During the exam
After the Exam
When the exam is over, reward yourself. If you don't have any other commitments, maybe you can go to a movie, go out to eat, or visit with friends. If you have to study for other exams, you may have to postpone a larger break, but a brief break can be the pickup that you need.
Activity 6:
Time for another quick review. Complete this short quiz (ANGEL Quiz).

Self Care
In addition to developing good study habits and techniques, it's important to remember that good nutrition, exercise, some personal "down time," a reasonable amount of social interaction, adequate food, and adequate rest are also important parts of any study program, especially before an exam. When people are tired and run down, they become frustrated more easily and experience more anxiety.
Students preparing for tests often neglect basic biological, emotional, and social needs. To do your best, you must attend to these needs. Think of yourself as a total person -- not just a test taker. Remember to:
Establish the habits of good nutrition and exercise as well as recreational pursuits and social activities -- all contribute to your emotional and physical well-being.
Follow a moderate pace when studying; vary your work when possible and take breaks when needed.
Get plenty of sleep the night before the test -- when you are overly tired you will not function at your absolute best.
Avoid alcohol and other drugs. Self-medicating with alcohol and drugs can increase anxiety and interfere with your ability to do your best.

Relaxation
Relaxation techniques are another way you can reduce anxiety. When used with mental and physical preparation, relaxation before and during an exam can aid retention and improve test performance. Here are several techniques for you to try:
Technique 1
Breathe in slowly and deeply through your nose and feel your stomach (not your chest) extend. Hold for a few seconds. Pull in your stomach, forcing the air out and think "relax." Repeat two or three times. Practice this procedure.
Next, let your body relax, put your arms at your sides, close your eyes, and let your mind go blank.
Now, beginning with your head, first tense the muscles in the forehead and scalp for about ten seconds. Then let them relax completely. Think about the difference and concentrate on making those muscles relax more and more.
After about thirty seconds, repeat the process with the muscles of your face and jaw, neck, shoulders, arms, chest, etc., until you reach your toes.
While continuing to relax, imagine those situations where you feel most tense and anxious. If you become anxious, stop imagining and relax again. Repeat the process of relaxation and imagining until you feel no anxiety while imagining.
Practice relaxing at times when you feel anxious--while studying, reviewing, or actually taking the exam (if time permits). This will reduce tension and help clear your mind.

Technique 2
It is possible for students to learn how to relax on cue, so that anxiety can be controlled during the exam. Learning how to relax is fairly simple, but if you want to be able to do so during your next exam, you will have to practice it beforehand. Follow these steps:
Get comfortable in your chair--slouch down if that helps.
Tighten, then relax different muscle groups of your body, one group at a time. Start with your feet, then move up your body to your neck and face.
Begin breathing slowly and deeply.
Focus your attention on your breath going in and out.
Each time you breathe out, say, "relax," to yourself.

Technique 3
Another approach focuses on reducing the negative and worrisome thoughts that provoke the anxiety. Students who are anxious about tests tend to say things to themselves that are negative or exaggerated. Research shows that test anxiety can be reduced if these negative thoughts can be replaced by constructive thoughts. In order to do this, you must first become aware of your own thoughts, and then replace them with constructive thoughts. For example, replace a thought such as "If I do badly on the test, I'm a failure" with a thought such as "Yes, this is a difficult test. I am going to do the best I can. If I get a low grade, I will do what it takes to perform better next time."

Discussion Subject of the Week 12th - 16th of May

THE EFFECTS OF SMILE!

From: http://www.thercg.org/youth/articles/0101-s.html

You have a very powerful tool of persuasion. This tool can make others feel liked, and can disarm others in times of conflict. Continue reading to learn how to better use this tool—your SMILE!

Philip has a very big problem. Whenever he enters a room, everyone ignores him! Every time he gets on the bus to go to school, the bus driver simply nods and looks away. Most of Philip's peers almost never have conversations with him, and the impression around school is that he is a grump who gets mad at just about anything. Even his teachers are edgy with him, and tell him that he has a "chip on his shoulder."

"Why does this always happen to me?" Philip asks himself. "Why does everyone treat me this way?"

Unaware that he is the source of the problem, Philip is unable to understand why others view him in an unpleasant manner. While he always has a lot to say, Philip's communication skills are lacking because he never learned to use one of the most powerful methods of communicating thoughts, moods, feelings and emotions.

Philip simply never smiles!

A Powerful Means of Communication
Most people understand that communication can be transmitted through written word and speech. Books, magazines, letters, satellite, television, videos, computers, radio, the Internet, email and cell phones are vital tools used to relay such communications.

However, the smile is one of the strongest communication tools, and many spend their entire lives not knowing how to properly use it.
Does this include you? Are you missing out on sharing your smile with family, friends and schoolmates, and, in turn, causing friction in your relationships with them?
If so, by practicing this one simple gesture, you can improve your communication skills, and begin helping others around you feel appreciated.
The desire to be liked actually drives many young people to do things they would not normally do. This sometimes causes them to give in to negative influences-peer pressure-often resulting in hurt feelings and emotions. However, it is natural for people to want others to care for them. Simply stated, everyone wants to be accepted-and a smile will help you help others feel this way.
A smile expresses joy, happiness and friendliness, and offers insight to the inner workings of the mind, such as intentions, emotions, feelings and attitudes, as well as demonstrating warmth, empathy and cooperation.

Smile-Everyone Is Watching!
Think back to all the miserable faces you see on the way to school or work each day. These hollow stares and "sour-puss" faces reflect dissatisfaction and unhappiness, almost as if they were headed to a torture chamber! These expressions reflect a negative and rebellious attitude, and many teens are trapped in this mentality!
Yet, when smiled at, these same people will often smile in return.

Notice the following facts about smiling:
• 72% of people think of those who smile frequently as being more confident and successful.
• 86% of people say that they are more likely to strike up conversations with strangers if they are smiling.
• Bosses are 12% more likely to promote people who smile a lot.
• Research shows that 65% of communication is non-verbal (many claim an even higher percentage).
• Non-verbal communication comprises facial expressions, eye movement, gestures, posture, and all other bodily signs-primarily facial expressions.
• The effects of a smile are so powerful that even a smile on the telephone produces positive results.
• When someone comes into a room, people are automatically drawn to their face, and a smile provides a warm greeting.
• Studies show that happiness is a by-product of smiling, not the other way around as most people assume.
• Research shows that when two people in conversation use the same kind of body movements and gestures (such as smiling), they will experience greater empathy for each other, which they may not even consciously notice.

The Value of Your Smile
Has anyone ever unexpectedly smiled at you when you were having a bad day or weren't in the best of moods? How did it make you feel? Didn't it make you feel better?
The following are a few points on why you should do the same, and share your smile with others:
(1) A picture is worth a thousand words. So also does a smile convey more emotion than words can.
(2) Smiling makes others feel welcome, special and appreciated.
(3) You can brighten up someone's day.
(4) A smile has the power of melting away insecurities and troubles people may have.
Try it out and see for yourself! You will find that almost every person you smile at will return the gesture. The hardest part is usually being the first person to smile.
Dale Carnegie, in his book How to Win Friends and Influence People, best summed up the lasting impacts of a smile: "It costs nothing, but creates much. It enriches those who receive, without impoverishing those who give. It happens in a flash and the memory of it sometimes lasts forever.

"None are so rich or mighty that they can get along without it, and none are so poor but are richer for its benefits. It creates happiness in the home, fosters good will in a business, and is the countersign of friends. It is rest to the weary, daylight to the discouraged, sunshine to the sad, and nature's best antidote for trouble. Yet it cannot be bought, begged, borrowed, or stolen, for it is something that is no earthly good to anybody till it is given away.
"Some people are too tired to give you a smile, may we ask that you leave them one of yours? For nobody needs a smile so much as those who have none left to give!"
With this knowledge, begin putting your smile to work! Make it a project to seek out at least one person who seems to be having a bad day and smile at him. The next day, smile at two individuals, then three, and so on. Learn to effectively use this communication tool. It will dramatically improve your relationship with others.
King Solomon, the wisest man who ever lived, wrote, "…he that wins souls is wise". Smiling will no doubt move you toward practicing the words of this wise king-and will help you win the affection and friendship of others!

Discussion Subject of the Week 5th - 9th of May

Causes of Brain Drain

From: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_drain

A brain drain or human capital flight is an emigration of trained and talented individuals ("human capital") to other nations, due to conflicts, lack of opportunity, health hazards where they are living or other reasons. Brain drain can occur either when individuals who study abroad and complete their education do not return to their home country, or when individuals educated in their home country emigrate for higher wages or better opportunities. The second form is arguably worse, because it drains more resources from the home country.
This phenomenon is perhaps most problematic for developing nations, where it is widespread. In these countries, higher education and professional certification are often viewed as the surest path to escape from a troubled economy or difficult political situation.

"TURKEY DOES NOT HAVE THE LUXURY OF LOSING ITS QUALIFIED YOUNG PEOPLE"
From: http://www.elegans.com.tr/arsiv/55/mektup.html

Unemployment which is the most important problem created by the economic crisis in Turkey has started to threaten our future. The unemployed include not only unqualified workers but also many well-educated university graduates who come from especially finance and media and who are integrated with the world; theirs numbers increase significantly on a daily basis. This sad reality also makes it impossible for new university graduates to find jobs.

The world is undergoing a very rapid change due to globalization and technological developments. Not being a part of this change for even a day creates significant costs. Therefore, in this period when we need to seize the opportunities and positive effects created by these sweeping changes and to move along with these changes, the unemployment of university- educated, contemporary, experienced and qualified individuals who speak foreign languages is a great blow to the future of Turkey in that they are the main power to trigger change.

Another point to take into consideration is the fact that if these individuals continue to be unemployed for another two years due to the economic crisis, they will become unqualified workers because of the rapid changes around the world. Turkey does not have the luxury of making these individuals who were educated at great cost and with great sacrifices redundant in two years time, as it is the case with computers. Turkey has taken some saving measures in the financial aspects of the public and private sectors within the framework of the Program for Transition to a Strong Economy; likewise it should immediately take the necessary measures to save its qualified young people whom Turkey has always trusted and been proud of, who are very attractive for rapidly aging EU countries, and who represent Turkey's future.


BRAIN DRAIN HITS TURKEY HARD, Wednesday, June 6, 2007

From: http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=75014

Brain drain is becoming a problem not only for developing countries but also for developed ones. The increasing mobility of labor resulting from globalization and integration projects such as the European Union are possible cause for educated people to move from their home countries to other locations that offer better jobs and living conditions.

For instance, Canada, a developed country, loses many of its educated minds to the United States. However, Canada is able to compensate this lack with the immigrants that come from developing countries. However, developing countries do not have the option of attracting a qualified labor force to replace that which they lose to developed countries.

When compared to their overall population, Luxembourg, Switzerland and Australia are the top three OECD countries on the recipient end of the brain drain phenomenon. The United States comes in over the OECD average for the percentage of educated people born abroad. Specifically in the world of technology, in the United States more than 10 percent of engineers, one fourth of doctors and nearly half of information technology (IT) experts are immigrants.

Conversely, South Korea, Japan, Mexico, Finland, Slovakia, Hungary and Turkey are the countries with the most people emigrating to other OECD countries. Among the causes of brain drain (i.e. reasons for leaving one's own country) are high rates of unemployment, social inequality, lower incomes, high tax rates, political instability and lower standards of living.

Turkey is also behind the OECD average and below half the world's average in terms of the share of gross national product (GNP) allocated to education. Young people who choose to study abroad for a better education as a result of the low quality in education in Turkey are not returning.

Professor Melda Cinman Şimşek
Dean, Marmara University Faculty of Communication

"In our world of a global economy, lower incomes resulting from unemployment is the most important cause of brain drain. It is a major loss for countries when their educated labor force emigrates abroad, and therefore no longer contributes to the development of their respective countries. The responsibility for a solution lies not only on the shoulders of the governments but also on the businesses with the potential to provide convenient employment conditions. Turkey's big business has to stop depending on foreign capital and has to build large industrial facilities, factories, etc.

The government also has to fulfill its duty in order to secure future earnings. Our country needs strategic planning, new jobs and fair social policies. Not only the educated, but everyone has the right to live in humane conditions."

Professor Aysıt Tansel
Middle East Technical University, Economics Department

"Brain drain has very negative consequences for the Turkish economy and education system. Students who go abroad to study are settling in those countries and are not coming back, even though they are expected to return and contribute to Turkey's need for educated teaching staff. Turkey has a deep need for education staff in every region. If scholarships are given for short periods and the government provides a rich environment for research and development by subsidizing research and development projects, the loss of educated staff could be mitigated."

BRAIN DRAIN FROM TURKEY : THE CASE OF PROFESSIONALS ABROAD
Nil Demet Güngör and Aysıt Tansel, Feb, 2007
From: http://www.tek.org.tr/dosyalar/TANSEL-GUNGOR-TM.pdf

The demand for higher education partly reflects the value families place on university education as a means for achieving social mobility and prestige. As well, the expectation of greater monetary returns (greater job opportunities and higher pay) also provides a strong incentive for investing in university education.

Because of the inability of higher education system in Turkey to absorb the demand for higher education, many students choose to study abroad. A great majority are private students who go with their own means or are financed by their families. In addition, many students are sent overseas by the government on scholarships in order to train for positions in public institutions as well as both state and private universities. They are expected to return and contribute to the development of Turkey after completing their studies.

Unfortunately, even when there is a compulsory service requirement attached to the state scholarships, there is no guarantee of return; about 15 percent of those who have stopped receiving the Higher Education Council’s scholarships have not returned (YÖK, 2005).

Discussion Subject of the Week 28th of April - 2nd of May

CAUSES OF FOOD CRISIS IN THE WORLD

1. Global Warming

Crops feel the heat as the world warms http://thefraserdomain.typepad.com/energy/2007/03/global_warming__1.html

Stanford, Calif. – Over a span of two decades, warming temperatures have caused annual losses of roughly $5 billion for major food crops, according to a new study by researchers at the Carnegie Institution and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
From 1981-2002, warming reduced the combined production of wheat, corn, and barley—cereal grains that form the foundation of much of the world’s diet—by 40 million metric tons per year. The study, which will be published March 16 in the online journal Environmental Research Letters, demonstrates that this decline is due to human-caused increases in global temperatures.

"Most people tend to think of climate change as something that will impact the future,” said Christopher Field, co-author on the study and director of Carnegie’s Department of Global Ecology in Stanford, Calif. “But this study shows that warming over the past two decades has already had real effects on global food supply."

The study is the first to estimate how much global food production has already been affected by climate change. Field and David Lobell, lead author of the study and a researcher at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, compared yield figures from the Food and Agriculture Organization with average temperatures and precipitation in the major growing regions.
They found that, on average, global yields for several of the crops responded negatively to warmer temperatures, with yields dropping by about 3-5 percent for every 1 degree F increase. Average global temperatures increased by about 0.7 degrees F during the study period, with even larger changes in several regions.
“Though the impacts are relatively small compared to the technological yield gains over the same period, the results demonstrate that negative impacts are already occurring,” said Lobell.
The researchers focused on the six most widely grown crops in the world: wheat, rice, maize (corn), soybeans, barley and sorghum—a genus of about 30 species of grass raised for grain. These crops occupy more than 40 percent of the world’s cropland, and account for at least 55 percent of non-meat calories consumed by humans. They also contribute more than 70 percent of the world’s animal feed.
The main value of this study, the authors said, was that it demonstrates a clear and simple correlation between temperature increases and crop yields at the global scale. However, Field and Lobell also used this information to further investigate the relationship between observed warming trends and agriculture.


2. Impact of food for fuel

Food vs fuel concerns the competition between food and fuel on a global scale. Biofuel production has increased in recent years. Some commodities like maize or vegetable oil can be used either as food or to make fuel. Land that was also formerly used to grow other crops is now used to grow maize for biofuels. With global demand for biofuels on the increase many natural habitats are also being converted into farmland. This is a recent phenomenon and is considered to be one of the primary causes of 2007–2008 world food price crisis.
One systemic cause for the price rise is held to be the diversion of food crops (maize in particular) for making first-generation biofuels. An estimated 100 million tonnes of grain per year are being redirected from food to fuel. As farmers devoted larger parts of their crops to fuel production than in previous years, land and resources available for food production were reduced correspondingly. This has resulted in less food available for human consumption, especially in developing and least developed countries, where a family's daily allowances for food purchases are extremely limited. Filling a tank of an average car with biofuel, amounts to as much maize as an African person consumes in an entire year.

3. Population Growth (www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food)

According to the UN's food and agriculture programme, 854 million people do not have sufficient food for an active and healthy life.
The global population has risen substantially in recent decades. Between 1980 and 2000 it rose from 4.4bn to 6.1bn and food production increased 50%. By 2050 the population is expected to reach 9bn.

KEY FINDINGS of FOOD CRISIS REPORT (www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/apr/15/food.unitednations)

Bio-energy

Millions of people depend on traditional bio-energy like wood fuels and the report urges improvements in this area. At the moment biofuels like bio-ethanol and biodiesel compete for land and water with food crops and are not very efficient. They can also often cause deforestation and damage soils and water.

Biotechnology

The report highlights the significant lack of communication in the current agricultural system. Information exchange is often anecdotal and contradictory and there is a great deal of uncertainty over which methods ensure the highest and best yields of food. The use of GM crops, where the technology is not contained, is contentious, the UN says. Data on some crops indicate highly variable yield gains of 10-33% in some places and declines in others. The report stresses that local expertise needs to be maintained and improved.

Climate change

This is causing irreversible damage to the natural resources on which agriculture depends. While modest temperature rises may increase food yields in some areas, a general warming of the world temperatures risks damaging all regions of the globe. As extreme weather becomes more frequent there will be serious potential for conflict over habitable land and resources like fresh water.

Water

The report highlights how large parts of central and western Asia and much of Africa are running out of water. About half of those regions' internal renewable water resources are already below the minimum threshold for development – 500 cubic metres per person per year. By 2020, the water available per person will probably be about one-third of the 1950 level, or even less. The IAASTD warns that a major challenge is ensuring there is enough water as well as food. The regions' crop yield increases are generally below the world average, leaving most of these poor countries as net food importers, even though they are rich in agricultural biodiversity.

Displacement

The east and south-east Asia-Pacific region accounts for the largest numbers of environmentally displaced people in the world - a consequence of natural hazards as well as some planned production-enhancing investments, including dams and plantations. In addition, 60% of the ecosystems are degraded or used unsustainably because of current agricultural policies. The report warns that without the commitment of governments to ensure secure agricultural development, displacement and the knock-on effects will quickly spiral towards socio-economic turmoil that could be irreversible. Pollution and over-exploitation are damaging the farming potential of poor areas and locals are also being scarred by social ills such as illiteracy, which for example affects 80% of rural Moroccan women. Good governance is also rare.

http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/08/06/opinion/edsimoes.php
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_vs_fuel#cite_note-0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007-2008_world_food_price_crisis

Posted by Sezen Bayhan, English Instructor at İTÜ YDY

An Essay by Elif Taşal

What are the similarities and differences between public and private universities?

UNIVERSITIES

Education starts with primary school, and it lasts about 16-17 years, provided that it is continued for higher education. There are many universities in Türkiye, and our education system is mainly separated into two groups as private and state like in other countries. Therefore, students have two choices to study at university. Actually, both of them are same for many reasons, but of course there are differences between them which can’t be ignored.


Private and public universities instruct students for the same purpose: training qualified people. These universities have identical curriculum, there is no difference between their educational contents. Also, the students can find good jobs when they graduate from these schools. Thus, people have similar background and equal chance while they are looking for a job. In short, universities are only a way for education, so they aren’t different from each other when these reasons are taken into consideration.


In spite of their similarities, there are some differences between them. First of all, the students have many more facilities in the private universities. They have various social activities. Furthermore, at these universities, there are intimate affairs between students and teachers thanks to small classes. However, people must pay too much money to have this education, whereas others pay less money to the state universities. The people who take education in private universities have to pay a great quantity of money. Therefore, these reasons differentiate the universities from each other.


In conclusion, choosing a private university or public university depends on our wish. The importing thing is what we want from the education system. Both of them give a good education, and train us, but also they enable different opportunities about some issues. Both public and private universities are for education.

Written by Elif Taşal, C16

An Essay by Sena Uyanık

Do you think a nuclear energy plant should be built in Türkiye?

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Turkey needs a huge amount of energy investment to sustain its fast growing economy. Therefore, recently it is mentioned that a nuclear energy project will be built in our country. I think that it must be built. It is important to emphasize that this project is very significant for our country to achieve energy independence.

The prime minister of the government has decided to start building this project because of rising oil prices and dependency on foreign natural gas. For instance, Turkey paid 26 billion US $ for imported energy sources in 2006 and every year this price increases. Consequently, we should build this construction, instead of paying this money, because one can easily deduct that in five years time. This money is more than enough to finance the cost of the nuclear plant construction, so that we have energy independence. However, some groups claim that it shouldn’t be built. They say that the planned nuclear capacity will never cover more than 5 % of the Turkish energy demand in the future, but in reality it is not correct, because Turkey has uranium reserves totalling around 10.000 tones, and it is enough to last 50 years. As a consequence, even though we have a lot of resources, we don’t use them. In fact, this project is required for our country and our independence.

All in all, the plant construction ought to be built. We must pay our money for this project, instead of paying it to buy energy from other countries. To summarize, we should support this project for our country and our independence.

Written by Sena Uyanık, C16

Discussion Subject of the Week 21st - 25th of April

Surveillance in Schools: Safety vs. Personal Privacy
The Effects of Security Cameras at Schools

The important vocabulary in the text has been made purple for you.

From http://students.ed.uiuc.edu/jkelsey/surveillance/cameras.htm

Introduction

In recent years, violent episodes in schools in Arkansas, Colorado, California, Kentucky, Mississippi and other states have led educators and legislators to make "Safe Schools" a priority. Like many issues in education, suggestions on how to make a school "safe" have proceeded simultaneously on many different tracks. Teaching students strategies they can use to combat emotionally explosive situations through initiatives such as character education and peer mediation is one track that is currently used to help make schools safer. Another method that many schools are pursuing is stationing a full-time security officer (or officers) in the building. One of the most controversial methods involves surveillance of students through video cameras.

Benefits

At this time there are no unbiased studies of the benefits and drawbacks of the use of video surveillance systems in schools. Naturally, proponents of using these systems emphasize the benefits, while opponents discuss the drawbacks. Benefits to using cameras depend on the individual school and the problems it faces. Experts recommend following a procedure that first determines the problem, then decides how surveillance equipment can be used to address the problem.

One of the advantages that proponents of video surveillance claim is peace of mind for students and staff (Green, 1999, Why video cameras?). "Security experts and administrators who use the cameras say students and teachers seem to appreciate the increased sense of security". Naturally this is one of the most important features of a system that schools use in response to recent highly-publicized incidents of violence in the schools. Green argues that although cameras are passive, information about their presence will make its way through the community. Students and staff feel safer knowing that potential perpetrators will be scared off by the presence of cameras before committing an offense.

Another advantage that can be measured is a reduction in property damages such as vandalism and theft. "Far too often the administration can only react to vandalism with time-consuming, seldom successful and often fruitless attempts to identify the perpetrators". "The costs [of theft] are monetary (no money for replacement) and inconvenience (educational opportunity loss for our students)". Video surveillance systems provide a solution for these issues. "Cameras certainly multiply security’s eyes, helping the administration to apprehend and discipline students caught on camera". Cameras also provide security in hidden areas of schools that are physically difficult to monitor.

Finally, schools using video surveillance claim better behavior because of monitoring. ''Sometimes just the idea in kids' minds that there's a camera recording them keeps them from causing trouble or being difficult". "Word gets out (about the cameras and searches) and I think it's had an effect that way". Some schools view cameras as having a dual purpose. "All of Bullitt County's buses are being equipped with cameras to randomly monitor student behavior and driver performance". Since stored video records provide tangible evidence, school officials may find employee performance evaluations easier to do using video surveillance tools than face-to-face. The use of video records as evidence and as a means of identification may also be a reason students may be less inclined to cause trouble. "The solid documentation that a video recording provides can be invaluable in situations involving liability claims".

Drawbacks

Opponents to using video surveillance systems in schools emphasize several major drawbacks that need to be considered when studying the implementation of this kind of system. Cost is an obvious consideration. The equipment, testing, and installation of a system in a single school could cost $30,000 or more. Further, the school will have to provide money in future budgets for maintaining and upgrading the equipment.

Equally important is the question of effectiveness. "'Will it let an administrator know who did what? Sure,' said William Behre, an assistant professor at the College of New Jersey's Department of Special Education. 'Will it stop violence in any significant way? I don't think so.' He also noted that Columbine High School used surveillance cameras". Behre was a researcher in a University of Michigan study that studied violence in Midwestern schools and how the school administration responded. Opponents to cameras claim that as passive control devices, they won't be as effective in preventing violence as an adult would be.

Another disturbing thought is that adults with access to the surveillance system will use it for profiling purposes. "What assurances can be made that a student will not be unfairly targeted for surveillance because of their race, sexual orientation, gender, appearance, or religious beliefs"? Students have the concern they will be individually tracked by school administration. In The Four Problems With Public Video Surveillance, the American Civil Liberties Union urges "a consensus on limits for the capability of public CCTV systems" and "legally enforceable rules for the operation of such systems".

Finally, there is the question of how a surveillance system affects student morale. "When schools turn to technology as a 'quick fix,' there is a high risk of reinforcing a climate of fear and distrust, undermining the social ecology of the school, instead of actually having an impact on the identified problem". "What's wrong with the school? Have they lost the trust in their own students to a point that they have to spy on their lives"? "There's no indication that there's a need for this kind of prison-style security. The message it sends to students is 'We don't trust you, and everybody is a suspect'". "The more restrictions schools impose on students, the more alienated students are likely to feel, and the less involved in the learning process". "The cameras are teaching that government can and will invade your private space". "Heavy-handed school search policies foster distrust between students and administrators".

If you want to read the rest of the text, go to: http://students.ed.uiuc.edu/jkelsey/surveillance/cameras.htm

Discussion Subject of the Week 14th - 18th of April

The important vocabulary in the text has been made purple for you.

Public Universities versus Private Universities

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities.

In some regions of the world prominent public institutions are highly influential centres of research; many of these universities are ranked among the world's best in the THES - QS World University Rankings and the Academic Ranking of World Universities.

In Turkey, many of the most renowned universities are public such as the İTÜ, Boğaziçi University and METU, while at the same time a few of the notable universities are private such as Bilkent University.

A private university is a university that is run without the control of any government entity, as opposed to public universities. Tuition fees at private universities tend to be much higher than at public universities.

From: http://www.gocollege.com/options/private-universities/

Private colleges and universities are institutions that are run without government interference. Basically, these colleges are privately owned and operated, allowing for whatever the preferred type of instruction would be to be carried out.

Benefits of Private Colleges and Universities

Smaller Class Sizes
Since the campuses are typically quite small, private colleges also have small class sizes. This allows for greater student/professor interaction and a more engaging learning experience. It is doubtful that you will encounter the gigantic lecture hall on a private campus. Even so, most that enroll in a private university see the small number of people on campus as an extreme benefit to the value of their education.

Greater Class Participation
Since classes have smaller enrollment numbers, more one-on-one and group participation occurs. Students that are usually shy tend to come out of their shells and speak up when the class sizes are smaller and if students are to be called on randomly, there is an increased chance that you will be asked to speak. Some people see this as a bad thing, but in reality, it’s a tremendous benefit to students that wish to fully engage in the learning experience.

Increased Likelihood of Graduating
Students that attend a private university rather than a public one have an increased chance of completing their educations. The thinking is that there is less pressure on a private university’s campus, so students can more fully engage in their classes. Likewise, the peer pressures and social issues that are prevalent on public college campuses are typically absent from the private college campus.

Greater Campus Involvement
Activities on campus at private colleges tend to be more intimate affairs, which give a greater number of students to participate in them at a time. Small group functions allow the student body to actively engage in various activities and to take on more challenging roles on campus.
A public college is one that receives federal funding of some sort and may be run by the state. This means that the curriculum must meet certain standards as decided by the state or federal government. Even though this governmental presence may not seem like a good thing, it does carry with it some benefits.

The Benefits of Public and State Universities

Public and state universities have many benefits that those seeking colleges to apply to should know about.

Lower Tuition Costs
Because public colleges are backed by the state or federal government, the cost of tuition and dorm fees are generally lower than private schools. For instance, at a state school in California, as a local resident you may pay about $1500 a semester, whereas at a private school you could pay as much as $10,000 a semester!

Diverse Campus
Public colleges tend to have more diverse campuses than private colleges do. The tuition is more affordable and people from all over the world come to public schools to pursue their desired fields of study. The ethnic diversity is quite high, allowing students to interact will all sorts of people from different backgrounds, countries and financial situations. This helps to balance out the student body and create a more inviting atmosphere for all.

Many Opportunities
Public universities tend to have more opportunities available to students on campus. This is because there are federally funded programs active on campus and companies and corporations use public schools as a means of recruiting students for jobs, internships and the like.
Likewise, public colleges allow students to seek out opportunities more often with abundant career fairs and club days. You can get involved at any point during the year here.

Competitive Atmosphere
Competition is high on public college campuses. For instance, you can join any activity you wish, participate in clubs and even get a job on campus. While you can do these things at a private college as well, you most assuredly will not experience the high level of competition involved as on a public campus. This is the place to make a name for yourself and get in with companies while a student. You can make use of student services to get an internship or a job and secure relationships with professors, especially if you plan on going to graduate school.

Community Based
Even though private schools have a smaller number of students enrolled, public schools definitely foster a great sense of community. You can be a part of large on campus clubs, an organization or take part in community service. You may be going to a college that is close to your hometown, so you may have the benefit of feeling as though you’re providing for your own community in some way. Likewise, students may have grown up in neighboring communities, giving you a sense of a common bond with fellow classmates.

Is There a Difference in Quality when Money is Involved?

From: http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/102625/private_vs_public_universities.html

As the cost of colleges will inevitably continue to soar as the years pass, the continuing question is whether students attending private colleges are better off than those attending public colleges.

Some parents, students and professors believe paying the extra thousands of dollars for a private education does wonders for a student in the future who will end up making precious contacts and learning invaluable information for later on in life.

On the flip-side there are those who believe, a private college education is no better than a public school education. Thus, it is pointless to pay extra money simply for the sake of a student saying they attended such and such university. The education is all the same- it's only the name that changes - say some.

The New York Times recently reported that the four-year tuition (which includes classes and the cost of living) at a private school is approximately $30,000 each year - though the cost could be substantially higher depending on the school.In that same report, it was published that tuition has actually increased 81 percent between 1993 and 2004 and that financial aid from private schools has increased more than the cost of tuition itself.

The classic argument in favor of private school education involves smaller class sizes and the idea that students are taught from people who have doctorates and who have done a lot of research in the subject they are teaching to.

Incidentally, many say students who attend private universities, end up networking with students who may eventually end up in high places later on in life (which could possibly be beneficial to former classmates looking for jobs at the same company).

An Essay by Onur Işık

Is the Ilısu Dam really beneficial?

There are many ways to develop economy. One of them is to build dams in correct places of a river or any flowing water. On the other hand, the Ilısu Dam, which is a part of vast GAP project, is planned to be built in a place that involves the ancient city of Hasankeyf. By building a dam in this place we will not only destroy a historical value but also a touristic place that can be considered as a wonder.

Hasankeyf is absolutely a wrong place to build a dam. First of all, as a historical value, Hasankeyf is a unique place in the world. It consists of perched rocks made by nature and the Tigris. Throughout the history, this place was very important and was used as a capital city by many different civilizations. Second of all, by destroying Hasankeyf, we will cause a noticeable fall in tourism in this area, because the tourists who come in Hasankeyf want to see something different than the other historical places. In contrast, some people think that it is the perfect place to build a dam and they don't care about Hasankeyf. Nevertheless, they should realize that they can transport the dam plans to wherever suitable. But they can't carry nature and the archaeological heritage away from here. In conclusion, we have to find another suitable place for the dam.

To summarize, there is not any logical reason to build this dam especially in Hasankeyf. I think that we can easily find another and may be more suitable place to build it.

written by Onur Işık, C16

An Essay by Ayşe Yavuz

Do you think Ilısu Dam should be built on Hasankeyf?

NO DAM

Hasankeyf is an ancient city which is perched on rock. This place has spectacular monuments and great nature such as caves, valeys, etc. Nowadays, there is a project about Hasankeyf. This project is a dam, called Ilısu, which will be on the river Tigris. This dam will ruin everything in this ancient city. Therefore, as far as I am concerned the dam should not be built due to several reasons.

Everybody knows that if the dam is built, some problems will occur. For instance; cultural heritage which belongs to multiple civilizations will disappear. 3000-year old history will be destroyed. It is very bad for all people. People, especially the government should endeavor to protect this beautiful historical place. People ought to consider that they can transport the dam plans to wherever suitable, but they can not carry nature and the archeological heritage from there. The other significant point is settlement; people who support to construct the dam want inhabitants to change their lives. They say that local people will have to move from the region, because their habitats will be flooded by the dam’s water. I think, it is not a good idea and it is really difficult for people who have lived there for years; we know that migration means changing life areas, and getting used to all these are impossible for them, particularly for children. Their psychologies are affected very badly owing to this situation. On the other hand, dam supporters say that this dam will be built because of unemployment. We know that a dam can be used for about 50 years. They will destroy the history of 3000 years only for the benefit of 50 years and also, the problems about unemployment will not be entirely solved, because few people will be able to find job, but not all of them. In brief, there are several problems about building this dam.

All in all, Ilısu dam is not a solution and it must not be built owing to important points such as settlement, destruction of cultural heritage etc. Hasankefy and its wonderful nature should be protected. Some alternative solutions should be found by the government.

written by Ayşe YAVUZ, C 16

Discussion Subject of the Week 24th - 28th of March

The subject of this week is the difference of being parents of a disabled child from those who have non-disabled children.


“It was the silence that told me,” reports one young mother. “We were in the delivery room in the final stage. My husband was holding me and I was pushing and everyone was so excited because the baby was crowning. And then I pushed him out and suddenly everyone was quiet.” Then the nurses whisked the baby to the other side of the room and everyone was swinging into some kind of action and I was asking, What’s wrong? What’s wrong? And finally my husband came over to me with tears in his eyes and kissed me and said, “Honey, the baby looks wrong and they’re trying to figure it out but it’s going to be okay,” And it has been okay but it sure wasn’t what we had in mind.”

If you want to read the rest of this part, click: http://www.parentadvisor.net/babyneeds.htm

Parents or carers?
First and foremost parents regarded themselves as parents. Fundamentally, feelings of love and responsibility motivated parents to continue to care for their child.
"She was our baby. She was our first. To us, whether there was something wrong or not, she was still a baby. She still needed us, and so we just got on with it."
Equally important were the pleasures and joys their child had brought them. These differed little from those experienced with non-disabled children, though achievements and signs of progress were even more precious.
"As soon as you see her smile everything that you felt you were going to give up all just goes out of the window. As soon as she smiles you know she's happy.
As parents you've committed yourself to care for your children for as long as they need it really."
The study suggests, however, that as the child grows older, parents do feel they assume the dual role of parent and carer.
I see myself as a carer as well as a parent. I think Lisa goes beyond the role of just parent. I think basically that you're changing her bum for her at this age now and having to put nappies on her end, and it is past just being a parent.
Sources of stress
The most stressful aspect for many was the lack of respite from problems which are likely to continue into the foreseeable future.
"Nothing stops does it? You just carry on because they're there ... so you have to. There's nothing else to do."
However, for some parents, not having enough money, marital conflict, recent bereavement or simply having two or more very young children were greater sources of stress than the child's disability.

If you want to read the rest of this part, click:
http://www.jrf.org.uk/knowledge/findings/socialcare/SC54.asp

Around 55% of families of disabled children live in poverty; they have been described as "the poorest of the poor." It is within these constrained financial circumstances that families have to meet costs associated with bringing up a disabled child, which are estimated to be three times those of bringing up a non-disabled child. Unlike in other families, paid work is not the potential solution. The child's care needs, multiple appointments with healthcare professionals, and lack of child care affect parents' ability to work. Mothers with disabled children are much less likely to have paid employment than other mothers. This means that many families are, to a greater or lesser extent, reliant on benefits. Indeed, state benefits are the sole source of income for 90% of lone parent families with a disabled child. Current disability benefits do not meet the additional outgoings associated with having a disabled child.
Parents with disabled children have higher levels of stress and lower levels of wellbeing than parents with non-disabled children. Factors influencing levels of stress include the child's sleep and behaviour problems, families' material resources, parents' employment situation, social support, unmet service needs, and parents' coping strategies. Some interventions have improved children's sleep and behaviour problems and parental stress. However, many parents report that they want but do not receive help in these areas.
Living in suitable housing and having appropriate equipment to assist with activities of daily living are also key factors promoting families' wellbeing. Yet most families report problems with their housing and unmet needs for equipment.
Disabled children and their families often lack suitable local leisure facilities and accessible transport, and they often face hostile attitudes of staff and members of the public. These factors prevent them from taking part in activities as a whole family.
Parents frequently report the need for a break from caring. Such a break can provide time for themselves and their partners, and time to spend with their other children. Services that provide short term breaks can reduce mothers' stress, but many families have problems obtaining appropriate services.

If you want to read the rest of this part, click:
http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/333/7575/928

Test-tube revolution:
Having disabled babies will be 'sin', says scientist
by Lois Rogers Medical Correspondent
THE scientist who created Britain's first test-tube baby has said it will soon be a "sin" for parents to give birth to disabled children.
Bob Edwards, the world-renowned embryologist, said the increasing availability of pre-natal screening for genetic disease gave parents a moral responsibility not to give birth to disabled children.
Edwards said that he welcomed the dawn of an age in which every child would be wanted and genetically acceptable.
"Soon it will be a sin of parents to have a child that carries the heavy burden of genetic disease. We are entering a world where we have to consider the quality of our children."

If you want to read the rest of this part, click:
http://www.freerepublic.com/forum/a377efb252a28.htm

Discussion Subject of the Week 17th - 21st of March

Please read and study, then answer the survey question of the week on the right.

Public transport vs. private cars

While your are reading the below post, please think about the similarities and differences between the public transport and a private car.

From: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_transport

Public transport, public transportation, public transit or mass transit comprise all transport systems in which the passengers do not travel in their own vehicles. While the above terms are generally taken to include rail and bus services, wider definitions might include scheduled airline services, ferries, taxicab services etc. — any system that transports members of the general public. A further restriction that is sometimes applied is that transit should occur in continuously shared vehicles, which would exclude taxis that are not shared-ride taxis.

In many parts of the western world the private car currently dominates; however, in major western urban areas with good public transport systems and where the private car ownership and use is discouraged, and also in the developing world, where private car ownership is prohibitively expensive, then walking, (motor)cycling, and public transport offer well-used alternatives. Many modern cities even in the Eastern world, are investing in public transport initiatives to increase the attractiveness and usage of public transport.
Public transport can offer significant advantages in areas with higher population densities, due to its smaller physical and environmental footprint per rider and the problems associated with mass private car ownership and use (high parking charges and high levels of traffic congestion).
However, road-based public transport risks being considerably very slower than private vehicles if it gets held up in general traffic congestion and to compound this scheduled transport vehicles have to make frequent stops to board additional passengers and an individual trip may require one or more transfers.

In the Western world, public transport and car advocates have been debating which mode of transport is the best with considerable differences between Europe, Asia and the United States for both historical and cultural reasons.

Europe

European cities experienced their fastest periods of growth before cars were invented and/or widespread, so they are designed for walking, cycling and tram or bus usage and a tradition of public transport and light transport culture remains even today, even while living standards have escalated in Europe and other Western countries.
Following a period in the 1960's and 1970's during which attempts were made to accommodate the car, many countries and cities are now making sustained efforts to encourage people to use public transport. Train services are in good working order and popular in many countries in Europe with investment in high speed trains and night trains crossing many countries to compete with air travel.
United Kingdom bus usage has been rising nationally since about 1990 (although it has actually fallen by 30% in Scotland, 28% in Wales, and 22% in non-metropolitan areas in England).[2] In England, the number of bus journeys in 2006/07 was 12% less than it was in 1985/86, although London has seen bus journeys increase by 75% over the same period. Rail journeys increased by 53% between 1980 and 2006/007 in England, whilst London underground journeys increased by 86% over that period.
France has built an extensive TGV network, built light rail, reassigned road lanes from cars to light transport in city centres and car usage and its social status has decreased there.
Germany's AIRail Service has even replaced some airline routes.

United States
Most cities in the United States were built around the car, and in many places public transport is now almost non-existent, even in large cities, with only a few cities where public transport is in good condition, like New York City. Many public transport systems that existed prior to domination of the car were dismantled by the emergent car industry in a move came to be known as the Great American Streetcar Scandal; nevertheless, GM managed to "rip out" over 100 streetcar systems nationwide by 1950. In the 2000s, many US cities realized that widespread car usage caused serious problems, such as urban sprawl. In response to this, cities have begun to make their city centres more enticing, have canceled expressways projects and restored or improved public transport and commissioned new rail transit projects.

Asia
In Asia the population density is so high that widespread car usage is very hard to sustain. Japan, a very rich country, has known this for decades and its citizens use rail transit very heavily and it is very costly and difficult to use a car there. The same is true for Singapore, where a license is required to own a car. China has historically used a lot of bicycles and mopeds, but car usage is growing quickly and is causing a lot of problems like traffic jams and pollution, but there are numerous rail transit projects under construction in China today.

Africa
In most African nations, traffic tends to be less problematic. Due to low income levels, transport options may be limited to walking, animal transport, share taxi, and public transport where it exists. Where income levels are higher, traffic problems can arise. The most congested city in Africa is Cairo, where traffic jams can last many hours.

Economic impact
Emissions from road vehicles account for over 50% of U.S. air pollution. For every passenger mile traveled, public transportation uses less than one half of the fuel of private automobiles, producing 5% as much carbon monoxide and less than 8% as much as the other pollutants that create smog (such as volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides). Scientists estimate that public transportation already reduces emissions of carbon dioxide, which contributes to global climate change, by over 7.4 million tons annually. If Americans were to use public transportation at equivalent rates as Europeans, scientists estimate that U.S. dependence on imported oil would decrease by more than 40% and that carbon dioxide emissions would be reduced by more than 25%.
Household use of private vehicles accounted for 23% of all UK greenhouse gas emissions in 2005 (excluding international naviagation and aviation), up from 15% in 1990.

Social Inclusion
A important social role played by public transport is ensure that all members of society are able to travel, not just those with a driving licence and access to a vehicle.
Transit-for-all is the name given to a USA movement arguing greater investment in public transportation. Advocates of transit-for-all initiatives argue that the approximately 70 billion dollars currently assigned to subsidizing cheap oil should be reinvested in public transportation. Supporters of transit-for-all initiatives claim there are three main benefits to such a strategic realignment of resources: first, it will benefit the environment and, therefore, the nation’s health; second, it will increase the economic mobility of citizens currently marginalized because of their geographic isolation and revitalize neighborhoods by reconnecting them to their surroundings; third, it will decrease American dependence on foreign oil, thereby improving U.S. national security.
One reason many cities spend large sums on their public transport systems is that heavy automobile traffic congests city streets and causes air pollution. It is believed that public transport systems alleviate this, but reducing car traffic is not always assured.
Some city councils fund public transport infrastructure to promote business and economic growth, or to regenerate deprived ares of the city. Examples of public transport planned according to this philosophy are the Docklands Light Rail and Crossrail projects in London.
Some government officials believe that use of taxpayer capital to fund mass transit will ultimately save taxpayer money in other ways, and therefore, state-funded mass transit is a benefit to the taxpayer. Since lack of mass transit results in more traffic, pollution, and road construction to accommodate more vehicles, all costly to taxpayers, providing mass transit will therefore alleviate these costs.
Another reason for subsidies for public transit are the provision of mobility to those who reject its use on convenience, environmental or safety grounds and those who cannot afford or are physically or legally incapable of using an automobile.